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In a series of raids that rolled over the ancient civilization of India, various warriors defended the peninsula under the backdrop of the fall of other ancient cultures. The foreign raids over this soil did not choked the nation but molded more and more bravehearts, who flooded in to challenge the invaders. RISE OF TERROR Maharaja Suheldev Pasi had crushed the Ghaznavid rule of Afghanistan on the battleground of Bahraich. This victory paused the foreign invasion in India for a century and a half. By then Ghurid empire rose to power in Afghanistan under the leadership of Mohummad Ghori. Ghori had a strong ambition to rule over the Northern India. It didn't took much time for that ambition to unfold into a plan. It all begun with an attack at Multan. The important fortress of Uch fell under the grasp of Ghori. Ahead of Multan a vast desert enveloped their way till the next target; Anhilwara Patan. Anhilwara's citadel amassed tremendous amount of wealth and power under the grasp of the Solankis (Chalukyas). The sight of wealth was enough to drive insane an invader like Ghori. The Chalukya empire amassed territory from present day Gujrat till Rajasthan. This meant capturing the Chalukyan territory would pose as a gateway for Ghori to repeat the steps of Mahmud Ghazni; loot the Somnath temple. The demise of Ajaypala handed over the throne of Anhilwara to the infant Mularaja-II. Ghori saw a ray of opportunity he couldn't lose. Attacking a kingdom ruled by an infant was an easy task, but perhaps didn't Ghori knew the real ruler of the Chalukyas. THE SWORD OF SOLANKI Rani Naiki Devi of Chandelas was married off to king Ajaypala of Chalukyas. After the demise of the king, Naiki Devi swore to lead the empire until her son grew till the right age. And the moment to prove herself arrived, when Mohummad Ghori and the Ghurid army marched across the Thar desert. Naiki knew that the Chalukyan forces could not withstand the might of the Ghurid army. Quick recruitment of soldiers under a short span of time was an impossible task. Hence, she asked out for support of the feudal lords. Chalukyan warlords Naddula Chahamana clan, the Jalor Chahamana clan, and the Arbuda Paramara clan joined in the fray. With the army at ready, the Chalukyans rode their way to intercept the Ghurids at Gadarghatta near Mt. Abu. Ghori soon arranged his army inside the narrow pass of Gadarghatta. However, the Solankis held their position up high over the tall embankments. And what followed was an all out attack. The Solanki army didn't hold as many troops as the Ghurids, yet Rani Naiki Devi herself hopped in the battle to slay the invaders. Soon the colossal Ghurid army fell and Mohummad Ghori ran away from the battle scene.

The lineage of Maratha(n) bravehearts have reflected their ability to take over the ruthless foreign powers. However as a reader read the various anecdotes of Maratha warriors, quite rarely does the account of Tarabai Bhosale's war against Mughals is glorified. Very few know of her bravery, that outshine the reckless ambition of Aurangzeb to step down on Deccan during the 1700's. THE STORM UNFOLDS IN DECCAN After Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj breathe his last at Raigarh, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj succeeded him after a series of conflicts. Aurangzeb considered it as an opportunity to step down on Deccan. After 9 years of rule, Sambhaji Maharaj was caught and tortured to death at Tulapur by Aurangzeb. Under the chaos that unfolded, Sambhaji's wife Yesubai and his son Shahu were taken as hostage to Agra. Raigarh (capital of Maratha empire) fell under the Mughal army of over 15,000. During this instability instigated by Aurangzeb, Rajaram (2nd son Shivaji Maharaj) flee the capital with his wife Tarabai and his son Shivaji II via Pratapgarh, Vishalgarh and Keladi to Gingee fort. Aurangzeb followed his track, but faced a huge blow from Rani Chennamma of Keladi which made his progress to Gingee slow. After 3 attempts he successfully caught Gingee fort under his control, but by then Rajaram had swiftily fled his way to the Satara fort. From there, Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav tried to reclaim back the lost territories of Maratha empire. THE RESOLUTION TO DEFEND THE EMPIRE After a short rule of 2 years Rajaram passed away, thus creating a vacuum in the empire. Shivaji II was considered as the heir of the throne, but his age did not deemed fit for the condition. So, Tarabai Bhosale stood up for taking up the administration of the Maratha empire. Aurangzeb considered this situation, an opportunity to not be lost. The colossal Mughal army stepped down their way towards Satara. The pace of giant Mughal army was quite slow, which ignited a chance for speedy Maratha army to take actions. Under the leadership of Tarabai the army slowed down the movement of Mughals and started gaining territories at Hyderabad. Tarabai then observed weakening of Mughal control in North India and immediately steered her way towards key territories. Unable to capture Satara, Aurangzeb earned quick gains from grabbing Torna fort and Rajgarh fort by bribing. But while his forces were fighting in the south, Tarabai lead forces till Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh! By 1705, Maratha empire got hold of rich regions; Khandesh and Surat. To quench the thirst of the ever needed fundings, she strategically designed exclaves in Mughal empire whose revenue feeded the Marathas. Aurangzeb tried to threaten Marathi sovereignty by attacking the forts with his juggernaut army, but Tarabai's calculation of penetrating in Mughal territories like the important trading centres of Bharuch and Burhanpur simply outweighed his ambition to see the dissolving Maratha empire. Aurangzeb tried to attack Naik rulers, but his soaked up army failed to defeat an alliance of Naiks and Marathas. Under this process Aurangzeb lost over 1/5th of his army, fighting a war without any strategy or with a fixed aim. Aurangzeb was exhausted after almost 25 years of struggle against the Marathas. He somehow managed his way to escape till Ahmednagar, still facing attacks by Marathas en-route and finally died due to illness. THE LEGACY Mughal king, Bahadur Shah let Shahu Maharaj free. From there, Shahu received support from Maratha commanders and successfully became Chhatrapati by defeating Tarabai at Battle of Khed. She set up rival court in Kolhapur but was disposed by Rajasbai. Finally she was given residence in Satara fort. She even led a proxy-rule at Satara after Shahu passed away. Finally Peshwas accepted her respected post in return to the acceptance of Peshwa rule across the Maratha empire. She saw the Marathas at pinnacle of their power as they ruled almost the whole India. Finally she breathed her last at 1761; few months after the 3rd battle of Panipat. Her sword had the power to protect the Maratha empire from the Mughals, and ever thankful can be the further expansion of Maratha empire across the nation due to her abled leadership. "She won the heart of her officers, and for all the struggles and schemes, the campaigns and sieges by Aurangzeb up to the end of his reign, the power of Marathas increased day by day" ~Khafi Khan

INTRODUCTION While dusting our palms across the Indian map of the colonial times, an observer might notice sprinkles of small yet significantly important territories ruled by the Portuguese empire. Yet, the colonial power suffered a terrible loss during the second half of the 16th century due to the queen of Tulu Nadu. PORTUGUESE EMPIRE IN INDIA Vasco De Gama's landing at Calicut marks the beginning of the Portuguese invasions in India. The empire's presence sprouted at Bombay (Mumbai), Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, etc. With an aim to create ports and factories/trading centers at coastal towns to trade, their ambitions rose exponentially. Portuguese gave a tough blow to international trade by gaining a monopoly over the Indian ocean for straight 200 years! Their hands extended from India to the African continent. With the horizon of expansion growing gradually, the shadow of a stiff resistance hovered over them as they progressed to defend their monopoly against other rising colonial powers globally. RISE OF RESISTANCE Ullal, a small coastal town near Mangalore was a strategic location for trading. A great amount of international trade with the help of Zamorins of Calicut flourished at Ullal under the Chowta dynasty. Chowta dynasty was a Matrilinear dynasty, hence the most important power of 'ruler' for their territory was vested upon the shoulders of the daughters of the Chowta family. The Chowta dynasty led a powerful resistance against the Portuguese for over a century! Yet, the loss of war made the Chowtas to sign a treaty with the Portuguese that flung their hands off trade globally. Abbakka, the daughter of the queen of Ullal was born in 1525. During her growing years, she was trained as a diplomat, archer, swordsman, and a powerful leader. Abbakka's father arranged her marriage with the king of Bangher (Mangalore). Mangalore was under the Bangher kingdom which was ruled by Lakshmappa Bangaraja. Quite soon after the marriage, the queendom of Ullal fell in the hands of Abbakka Devi. Lakshmappa expected Abbakka to sell the throne of Ullal to Bangher, but Abbakka showed no sign of giving up. She rather kept her eyes glued to the official document, that threw away the power of trade from Ullal to the Portuguese. The sight of Mangalore fort across the river of Netravati gave her goosebumps. A plan started brewing up in her mind. She arranged talks with her husband, to remove the Portuguese from Mangalore as he was the original ruler of that region. Frightened Lakshmappa replied, "Portuguese are powerful and I do not wish to waste my army on fighting Portuguese for no reason. Banghera has a strong relationship with them and I cannot drop it." Abbakka was annoyed, she returned all the jewels that symbolized her marriage with Lakshmappa and asked him to leave Ullal. Enraged Lakshmappa rode his way to Mangalore fort. He stepped up to the court of Banghera and signed his allegiance to a Portuguese resident. A fleet of ships rowed their way in front of the Ullal fort. Abbakka was delighted by the sight of the Ullal navy going to the land of Arabs to trade goods after a long time. As the fleet went ahead, a surprise went in for them. The ultimate Portuguese navy hustled their way to block the Ullal navy. Soldiers were bewildered for a moment but regained their consciousness immediately. A huge warcry roared across the Ullal navy as they pounced upon the colonial fleet. Portuguese had to back off after seeing their numbers waning. The whole town of Ullal cheered as the fleet returned with profit and also successfully resisted the Portuguese attack. Behind the fleet, a ship with a different flag docked at Ullal. It was the flag Kozhikode (Calicut). The Zamorin (leader) of Kozhikode thanked Abbakka. She was puzzled for a moment. Zamorin explained to her that during the attack, the Portuguese did not just attack Ullal's fleet but also shot cannons over the Calicut's fleet. But the commander of Ullal successfully drove the enemy away single-handedly. FINAL WARCRY ECHOES After the incident, Kozhikode and Ullal developed a better political relationship. Regular rounds of a trade by Ullal were carried out with Kozhikode traders accompanying them. But they were also attacked regularly by the Portuguese. Portuguese were disappointed by their regular defeat. Lisbon asked Goa to go for a full-fledged invasion of Ullal to stop them, once and for all. Admiral Dom Álvaro da Silveira led a huge army marching towards Ullal in 1556. Abbakka was baffled by the sight of colonists preparing for an attack at Ullal. Yet, she considered it as an opportunity to drive away from the pest from the soil. In a powerful speech at dawn, she filled the Ullal army with a will to fight. They strategically attacked small units of the Portuguese army one by one. This weakened them. Silveira was shocked, he immediately flung the white flag asking for a truce in front of Ullal. Abbakka rejoiced. This was one of the first victories of an Indian queendom against a colonial power! They repeatedly attacked and Abbakka stopped them every time in years that followed. Infuriated Portuguese of Goa sent Joao Peixoto in 1568 to invade Ullal. Joao prepared a fleet that would attack over Ullal via water and also created a ground force to surround Ullal. The navy blew away the wall of Ullal fort. The colonial army jumped inside the fort. Abbakka and the Ullal forces backed off as soon as the wall was destroyed. Joao advanced his way to the royal palace of Ullal. The Ullal army and the queen hid under a Mosque near the town. The army lost their hopes to fight. Abbakka was dejected, yet anger-filled inside her as she saw the Ullal fort at distance under the cloak of fire. The blanket of darkness fell as the night approached. Abbakka sent a spy to Ullal fort who returned and reported, "They are celebrating their victory around a campfire." She asked, "Are they consuming alcohol?" The spy nodded. She stood up with a plan orbiting her head. With the strength of 200, Ullal forces tiptoed back to the fort observing a huge campfire. Abbakka asked the commander to get control of the navy unnoticed. The small unit of the army stayed with the queen as they waited for the signal. BOOM! firing rained over the drunk Portuguese army. Most of the men unconscious; were not able to repulse back. They killed Admiral and even captured Mangalore. The Ullal army threw the Portuguese off the shore, thus gaining victory. Goa felt this was a breaking point for them. Anthony D’ Noronha, the Portuguese viceroy now went across Karnataka to remove the thorn of Ullal. A huge army of 3000 soldiers that followed their path to Ullal crafted a plan to eliminate the queen. Abbakka was returning from the Durga temple of Poolani to her way back home. Some men came out of nowhere and surrounded Abbakka. Yet they did not dare touch her. The leader simply said, "We do not wish to inflict damage. We are doing this under the orders of Raja Lakshmappa. He wishes to meet you" Abbakka agreed to meet the king of Banghera. Lakshmappa ordered her to surrender Ullal to the Portuguese as Banghera has joined hands with them. Abbakka was infuriated. She drew her sword out and a backdrop of 100s of Ullal soldiers trampled above Banghera(n) forces scared Lakshamappa. The queen escaped and thanked the far-sighted commander of Ullal to protect her. Lakshmappa was humiliated and joined Anthony's forces. As soon as spies informed her of an upcoming Portugal invasion, she allied with Moors, Zamorin, and Bijapur. As the sun rose with the Ullal army at the gate of the fort awaiting orders from Queen to fight the Portuguese, she swore her will to drive the colonists away and said “Save the motherland. Fight them on land and the sea. Fight them on the streets and the beaches. Push them back to the waters from where they have come.” The skilled archers of Ullal shot bow with fire tipped on them at the enemy's fleet and hounded over the Portuguese. The shining yellow fire of destruction under the crimson of dusk saw the ambition of the Portuguese to rule over Mangalore sinking. But, Abbakka was caught and imprisoned by the Viceroy. Her restless mind lighted her strength to revolt even inside the jail! Yet she was killed as she tried to escape... LEGACY Portuguese suffered heavy damage and could not resist rebellion led by Abbakka's daughter. Already wounded, Mangalore coast was captured by an alliance of Venkatappa Naik of Keladi and Ullal. Finally, Shivappa Naik of Keladi kicked the Portuguese out of Malabar and Karnataka. Abbakka's legacy is still popularly celebrated in South Karnataka. The unstoppable Tulu sword is yet unknown to many, and this article collects your attention to the Indian braveheart. “Save the motherland. Fight them on land and the sea. Fight them on the streets and the beaches. Push them back to the waters from where they have come.” ~Abbakka Devi Chowta

While flipping over the pages of Maratha empire, the Indian history has find the spectrum of its own which many don't know about. From Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj to Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur, from Peshwa Bajirao to Yashwantrao Holkar the countless incidents of Maratha(n) bravehearts are unknown to many. This article presents the tale of a Maratha, who gave a crushing defeat to the British East India Company. THE ERA OF SUCCESSION The Holkars were the iron-hearted dynasty of brave Kings and queens who ruled over Indore. Ahilyabai Holkar, one of the greatest queen born on the soil passed away on 1795. She was succeeded by Tukoji Rao Holkar who ruled for only 2 years. Yashwantrao had to face a turbulent time as the era of succession dawned upon the Holkar throne. Yashwantrao had 3 brother namely; Kashirao Holkar, Malharrao Holkar, Vithojirao Holkar who seem to be worth enough to succeed the throne for many. Yet the siblings felt, the deserving Malharrao to be the heir of the throne. The battle of Lakhairi against the Europeans and Scindias was an open testimony of Malharrao's bravery. Behind the glory of support received by him, the fire of jealousy ignited in Kashirao who wished to get the taste of power; Kashirao immediately drew an alliance with the Scindias. Many believed Scindias to be the arch-nemesis of the Holkars, hence Kashirao's decision was condemned by his brothers. Daulat Rao Scindia immediately went to action mode. He gave a surprise attack on Malharrao. Daulat swiftly imprisoned Malharrao's wife and Yashwantrao's daughter. Yashwantrao and Vithoji escaped and took refuge at Nagpur. But Bhonsle of Nagpur imprisoned them. The Holkar brothers sneaked out of the situation with the help of Bhavani Khatri. Yashwantrao now knew the real face of "loyalty". Support for Yashwantrao stirred slowly among the crowd. His attention drew towards the expansion of Holkar, yet he knew he had to craft alliance for the same. The Rajput dynasty of Pawars was suffering from rebellions by the minister. Holkar saw the light of an opportunity to get ahold of. The Holkar army rode over the lands of Rajputs. The commander from the rebellion's side, Shevelier Duddres received crushing defeat. The Holkar army's roar reached till Maheshwar. This episode reflected Yashwantrao's capability of ruling Indore. BATTLE OF PUNE Yashwantrao was crowned as the king of Indore. A ceremony that bestowed the power of Holkar on a right hand, Yashwantrao had an ambition to unite the Northern and Southern states under the umbrella of the Marathas. His mission unfolded with his campaign up north by attacking Ujjain. As the Holkars moved up North, Vithojirao planned to play the cards of politics in South. Vithoji openly declared his partnership with Amrutrao of Pune. The people of those times believed Amrutrao to be more capable than Peshwa Baji Rao-II to hold the title of Peshwa. Peshwa Baji Rao II immediately sent the minister of affairs to arrest Vithoji. Vithoji's wife and son were arrested. The enraged Peshwa ordered a death sentence to Vithojirao to be trampled upon by an elephant. Many recommendations fell upon the Peshwa to double back from his decision, to avoid skirmishes on the map of Maratha empire. Yet, the Peshwa ruled out those concerns and continued with the prosecution. Yashwantrao was shocked by the news of his brother's death. He swore to take revenge for the death of his 2 brothers. Yashwantrao started his revenge by adding fuel to the Ujjain war-sight. The Holkar went wild on general Hassing's (foreign army general of Scindia) army. Over 3000 soldiers had fell upon the fury of Holkar army. Yashwantrao drove the Scindias out of the city. This defeat was a major embarrassment for the Scindias. With another revenge to be seeked, Yashwantrao marched towards Peshwas of Pune. He sent a letter of 4 powerful demands to the Peshwas. The Scindias taking refuge at Pune did not even had opportunity to take a sigh of relief. Peshwa Baji Rao II was astonished by seeing the conditions of that letter sent All of the demands were rejected and last prayers to stop the war upcoming fell. Yashwantrao immediately rode with his army to the city of Pune. Scindias and Peshwas designed a powerful regiment of over 25000 men and powerful cannons to defend themselves. The joint army of Scindia and Peshwas fell upon the Holkar at Hadapsar. The Holkars attacked the joint army of Pune strategically. The powerful blow of Holkar gave the Peshwa, a signal to back-off till Sinhagarh fort near Pune. The army pounced their way till Jejuri. The Holkars won the city and asked Peshwa to return to Pune to sign the terms. Many believe that Yashwantrao had sent food supplies at Sinhagarh for Peshwa, so that he would not feel insecure for the terms. The Holkar wished for a peaceful and smooth return of territories with Peshwas and Scindias. Baji Rao did not had any will to bow to the Holkars, yet he trembled under the voice of Holkar echoing across the Maratha confederation. With the Holkars at Pune, Baji Rao felt insecurity rising around him at Sinhagarh fort. Hence, he rode his way to Raigarh away from Pune. The growing ambition of British East India company led to a feast, when they understood the situation of Peshwa. A proposal was sent by them to the Peshwa; "Accept the subsidiary alliance by us, which will allow the professional English infantry to replace yours. In return you will have to submit the sovereignty of Peshwa(n) territory to the British East India Company." Baji Rao was threatened to be replaced by his brother for the throne by the British. He signed the treaty at Vasai. BRITISH ENTRANCE IN MARATHA POLITICS While the subsidiary alliance was signed, Yashwantrao handed over the Peshwaship to Peshwa Amrutrao. He tried to refresh the whole situation of Maratha politics into a stable form. After the job done he returned to Indore. But after returning, Yashwantrao observed the stirring of allegiance to the British company by various Indian rulers. He understood the motive of British in India, and swore to drive them out of the nation. While Holkar returned to Indore, the British asked Peshwa Baji Rao II to return to Pune, to be reinstalled as the Peshwa of the state. Baji returned to Pune. But now Baji Rao understood the real face of British! His powers were nominal and the great title of Peshwa was left to him just for namesake. The British were successful in playing a trick against Peshwa Baji Rao II. Yashwantrao was alarmed, he immediately forged an alliance with Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghuji Bhosale. But the cunning Daulat had cooked up a plan to drive Holkar out of the game, once the British were kicked out by the alliance. He drew a letter with his motive and sent it to Baji Rao II. This letter was caught by Peshwa Amrutrao, who betrayed the Holkars by sending this letter to General Wellesley of British company. Wellesley hatched a plan after reading the letter. He sent the letter to Yashwantrao, to design a chaos in the Maratha confederacy. Yashwantrao was baffled. He pulled himself out of the alliance and also the Maratha confederacy. While he could plan a backup over the situation, Scindias fell completely at the Battle of Assaye and Raghuji lost against the British. Holkars were isolated completely. Yashwantrao expected a storm to roll upon Indore. THE FINAL WARCRY A letter was announced at the court of Indore by British East India Company official General Perron. The letter begged Holkar to sign a subsidiary alliance. Yashwantrao pointed to his horse and saddle and said "My country and property are upon the saddle of my horse, and please God, to whatever side the reins of the horses of my brave warriors shall be turned, the whole of the country in that direction shall come into my possession." After this incident Yashwantrao understood that British were scared of him. He rode his way and crushed General Fawcett of British empire at Bundelkhand. The British governor general has reportedly wrote letter to General Lake to suppress Yashwantrao as he was a "gun pointed on British expansion in India". He further defeated General Mason at Kota. Many describe his character during a war to be frightening for an enemy. He does not leave enemy on his route just like his brother Malharrao. He pointed his army to lay a siege at Delhi to free Shah Alam of Mughal empire, with hopes to draw another alliance. Yet he had to back off as British seemed to route him. He turned over to Deeg and British had to be a silent spectator for the situation. He went back to Bharatpur and made an alliance with the Jats. British succesfully made their way towards Ujjain and Indore, and get hold of the capital region. Yashwantrao was dejected. British started dividing Holkar territory bit by bit. Bhavani Khatri was given a district in Delhi with a palace referred to presently as the Namak Haram Ki Haveli (Traitor's palace). Jats signed peace with British and Holkar planned to leave Bharatpur. Holkar drew up an alliance with the Chhatrapati and Scindia. Maharaja Ranjit Singh from Punjab, Throne of Jaipur and Bhosales of Nagpur joined for the cause. British East India Company was terrified from this alliance, from the all in colossal war of independence. Governor general Wellesley repeatedly asked Lord Lake to drive out Yashwantrao. Yet Lake replied, "It is an impossible task to pursue Holkar, he has a fantasy of killing Europeans!" Lake tried persuading Ranjit Singh to back out from this alliance. Ranjit Singh left the alliance and the domino effect proceeded. Everyone abandoned Holkar again. During this time, General Wellesley of East India Company was replaced by Cornwallis. Cornwallis had carefully observed Holkar's strength. He simply did not wished to lose the army fighting against the life threatening enemy. Afraid of Holkar's power, he immediately drew up a peace treaty with them. Over the bank of river Beas the treaty was signed and Indore, Ujjain, Kota was handed over to Yashwantrao. The territory of Indore remained the only Maratha sovereign state, against the shadow of fall of the whole Maratha confederacy. LEGACY OF YASHWANTRAO HOLKAR Yashwantrao was successful in defending Indore. It is said that he had made an arms and ammunition factory and recruited over a lakh of soldiers to wage a war against the British East India Company. Sadly the great Holkar took his last breath on October 27, 1811. He sacrificed his whole life in waging a war against the British. He suffered multiple hits of downfall repeatedly, but never let the Maratha sword down over the feet of foreigners. His life is an open letter of Maratha bravery. “First Country, and then Religion. We will have to rise above caste, religion, and our states in the interest of our country. You too must wage a war against the British, like me." ~Yashwantrao Holkar

THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY From the beginning of the 8th century CE, the Northwestern border of our country was exposed to Arab invasion by the Turks. But these wretched invasions did not end there. After the Turks, the Europeans took over the reins of our country at this time, using sea routes. From the 16th century onward, European powers such as the Portuguese, the French, the Spanish, the British, and the Dutch began to establish their industries throughout India. One by one the Europeans entered India and held fast to the trade market of our country. We all know the East Indian Company of the British Empire founded in 1600 CE But perhaps the East Indian Company was not the only European empire to set foot on the Indian subcontinent. Two years after the establishment of the British East India Company, the Dutch Republic established the Dutch East Indian Company also known as the Verenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC) to trade with countries in the Far East. The Dutch East India Company became the largest economic power on Earth due to their Monopoly in the Malay Islands. They wanted to grow at all costs and India was the next lottery in their eyes, especially Travancore - the Capital of the Spices in the world. POLITICAL SITUATION OF KERELA During the late 18th Century, The present day region of Kerala was divided into several small kingdoms and principalities that did not had good relations amongst them. A time when the scene of one kingdom at war with another was not uncommon, this made Kerala politically unstable from it's roots. This set the stage for foreign invasions. In 1729 Marthanda Varma, at the tender age of 24 years, had ascended the throne of the State of Travancore. At that point, the position of the state of Travancore was haywire. He immediately led the political front by arranging the pieces of chess. He devised a policy of "expansionism" to unite the Malabar coast under one throne. As a result, the young impulsive king of Travancore soon began to invade neighbouring kingdoms. As a result of his prudent ambitions, the kingdoms of Attignal and Venad were captured. His advancement towards the small kingdoms and states became an instant threat to the economical fantasies of the Dutch, who wanted to gain all of the economical and political power of Malabar. Along with a threat to power and trade, the Dutch felt hostile towards the little honor that Marthanda Varma gave to the contracts of the small, conquered kingdoms with the Dutch. Adding to their concerns, Marthanda Varma then decided to overthrow the Odanad regime of South. The state of Odanad had signed an agreement with a Dutch company to sell all of their Pepper to them. In addition, the friendly relations between Marthanda Varma and the Dutch rivals, British had gave the Dutch a glimpse of the coming storm. TRIGGER FOR A 'WAR' Facing the threat from the wise and farsighted king of Travancore, the Dutch Governor of Ceylon, Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff, decided to negotiate and present him with terms and conditions from Amsterdam. The Dutch emperor ordered Varma to suspend his expansion policy. Marthanda was outraged . He refused to agree to the terms and conditions of the letter. In these conditions, war seemed inevitable. Marthanda even mocked the Dutch by saying “Should the Dutch lose the war I would invade the Netherland and Europe itself one day with my fishing boats”. With this said, eventually all attempts of negotiations came to an end and war became a reality. BATTLE OF COLACHEL (Final Warcry) The Dutch army marched to Attingal and took advantage of the withdrawal of the Travancore Troops due to an invasion through the south in Arcot. The Dutch army gained huge swaths of territories. The Dutch were on the brink of defeating Travancore, but they needed reinforcements from Indonesia, which eventually arrived from Ceylon. Thereafter events unfolded over Dutch side. On 26 November 1740, the Dutch arranged their central military force at Colachel. Suddenly the Dutch started to bombard the town and turn it into fire land. Immediately Marthanda Varma released his forces against the Dutch. The Dutch wanted to capture Padmanabhapuram, which was Travancore capital. Marthanda Varma seeked help from Indonesia and Sri Lanka for reinforcements but were busy in managing state affairs. Soon Marthanda Varma observed that the Dutch army would again need to refresh their infantry. And the tide turned, Dutch army now wanted a refuel. But now Marthanda had the game in his grasp. The fleet of Travancore choked all of the reinforcements from sea, while Marthanda Varma himself lay siege on Colachel and then surrounded the dutch completely with an army of 1000 men. But the plan fell, the Dutch technology specially designed for warfares threw the Travancore army away. Marthanda waited for the time to ripe. Dutch navy reinforcing Dutch army from Sri Lanka Now the nature rolled the dice, rains and flooding restricted all the supplies for the Dutch army. Travancore could sense a blessing from bharatmata. On 5th of August, 1741, a cannonball from the Travancore army, blew up the ammunition and food store of the Dutch Garrison. Dutch army went frantic. Out of ammunition and food stock, the Dutch army got a huge blow from Marthanda. They surrendered to the Travancore forces on 7th August 1741. “Should the Dutch lose the war, I would invade the Netherland and Europe itself one day with my fishing boats” ~Marthanda Varma

INTRODUCTION AND EARLY LIFE The king who crossed the borders of India, the king who never lost a battle, this article is about RAJENDRA CHOLA of Chola empire of Tamil Nadu. Rajendra Chola had mastered the skills of warfare in his tender age. During his father's rule, Rajendra moved his sword to challenge the Rashtrakuta empire. His army stomped over the Rashtrakuta's territories which gave him access to a Major section of Karnataka and South Maharashtra till Pandharpur and Kolhapur. CAMPAIGN OF SRI LANKA Rajendra planned to start a new campaign over the island of Sri Lanka. The campaign was successful after the Cholan army got the control of 'Anuradhapura' the capital of Sinhala kingdom. Mahinda V of Sinhala kingdom was kept in prison in mainland India, and passed away almost 12 years later. Mahinda's son Kassapa (Vikramabahu) seeked revenge against the Cholas. He led a successful rebellion against the Chola(n) rule and drove Cholas out of the South east Sri Lanka. Kassapa died soon, and government of Sinhala fell. Pandya kingdom of South India seized the opportunity and got control of south-west island. Cholas waged a war against the Pandyas and were successful. This gave Cholas full fledge access to Sri Lanka BRIEF RAID ON THE CHERAS AND PANDYAS Rajendra raided the kingdom of Pandya and Chera (Kerala) and appointed his son (Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya) as the viceroy for these territories with Madurai as the capital. CHALUKYAN CONFLICT While Rajendra was managing the situation of Sri Lanka, Chalukyas under Jayasimha started attacking territories on the Cholan territories over the western flank. Satyasraya of Chalukya had lost battles against Rajendra Chola's father Rajaraja Chola, so when Jayasimha succeeded Satyasraya he swore to defeat the Chola empire. Rajendra Chola had his eyes glued to the north of India, and his barrier was the Chalukya kingdom. Rajendra Chola was waiting to seize the opportunity, to defeat the Chalukyas. In the eastern Chalukya region of Vengi, a war had broke out between Chalukyan Vijayaditya VII and the Cholan Rajara Narendran over the throne of Vengi. Jayasimha took Vijayaditya's side. When Rajendra heard of disturbances in the Chalukyan frontier, he had no choice but to get involved in the conflict. Rajendra boosted Rajaraja's army with professional modern Cholan army. Chola's fought against Jayasimha's army and won the battle. Jayasimha ran away from the battlefield but the Chola's were not able to route him. Rajaraja Narendra was crowned as the king of Vengi, but he was later drove away by Jayasimha, who announced Vijayaditya as the king. Rajendra came back on the scene and sent Chola army to Kalidandi, defeating Vijayaditya once and for all. Chalukyas did not interfere in further military campaigns of Cholas. NORTH INDIAN CAMPAIGN Now Rajendra Chola after weeding out the Chalukyas, he wanted to continue his campaign towards the north. It started with Chola(n) forces defeating King Indraratha of Somavamsi dynasty who ruled over the territory of Kalinga (Odisha) and moved towards the kingdom of Pala of Bengal. FACE-OFF WITH THE PALAS Pala was a strong and renowned empire of that time who controlled the rich and fertile plains of the Bengal region. Rajendra knew the importance of that region, especially for it's coast. The Cholas rode theirway to the bank of the river Ganga, where Raja Mahipala of the Pala empire was waiting to block the Chola army. The Chola(n) army crossed the river to challenge the mighty Pala empire. A fierce battle ensued between the two sides for a long time. The efficient yet strong Chola(n) forces were no match for the Pala(n) forces. Palas lost the battle and had to retreat. WAY AHEAD TO THE NORTH There was no stopping for Rajendra now. He went one by one for the north Indian kingdoms. This campaign begun with a powerful blow to the kingdom of Mathuramandalam (Mathura, Uttar Pradesh). During the campaign the Cholas even made friendly ties with Kalachuria, Chandelas (Rajputs) and the Paramaras. Cholan army continued capturing kingdoms in Haryana and East Punjab (Now in Pakistan). It is said that Cholan forces went up till Purvadesam of Gandhara (Udhampur, Kashmir). Cholan army waved their flag in Chattisgarh, thus ending southern invasion in the north. People believe that Rajendra's intention for the northern invasion was to help his ally Paramara Bhoj of Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) to defeat Mahmud Ghazni. Yet that is unclear. After the campaign, Rajendra Chola shifted the capital of Chola from Thanjavur (Tanjore) to Gangaikondacholapuram. This episode of Rajendra Chola gave the ultimate testimonial of the mighty southern powers to the North Indian kingdoms and empires. SOUTH-EAST ASIAN CAMPAIGN Cholas had a strong navy for trading abroad. In many Chinese texts from the Song dynasty reference of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola (Father of Rajendra Chola) having strong diplomatic alliance with the Chinese has been discovered. Chola's economy was primarily dependent on trading for which the South east asian empires of Srivijaya (Malaysia), Thailand, Cambodia, Sumatra (Indonesia) were important. These kingdoms used to act as a mediator between Tamil traders and the Chinese kingdoms, so Rajendra wanted to control these areas for easier complete access to important trading routes. During this time Khmer Surayavarman of Southeast Asia waged war against Tambralinga. Suryavarmana seeked help from Rajendra Chola. After learning about the advancements, Tamrablinga sided up with Srivijaya empire of Indonesia. Rajendra found this as a good opportunity to start a campaign against the Srivijaya empire. He sent a strong fleet of Chola(n) Navy to Srivijaya and Sumatra. The Chola(n) army left no chance of defeat and captured the two kingdoms of Indonesia. Rajendra then moved to Malaysia and soon Thailand. On the way home, they captured Mauritius and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. But they diverted their fleet to Myanmar for more coastal areas, thus winning almost the whole South and South east Asian coastal region. This expedition paved for Cholan monopoly over Asian trading. Influence of the Chola empire on global level LEGACY OF RAJENDRA CHOLA (CONCLUSION) Rajendra Chola planned to retire for the rest of his life. A long yet glorious reign of Rajendra Chola was continued by his sons, who suppressed rebellions and maintained the empire. Rajendra passed away at Brahmadesam, Tamil Nadu. His legacy is unheard to many, but it is worth a recognition by many. Very few people are familiar with Chola(n) invasions across India and even abroad. Temple built by Rajendra Chola at Gangaikondacholapuram

A ruler who gave a crushing defeat to the Ghaznavids, this article is about one of the greatest rulers in India 'Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi' of the kingdom of Shrawasti in modern day Uttar Pradesh. BACKGROUND India was attacked and looted by Muslim rulers such as Mahmud Ghazni in the 11th century. Mahmud Ghazni is known to have looted India over 17 times. It was difficult for Indian rulers to create a solution to protect India from foreign powers during such a turbulent time. GHAZI MASUD In the aftermath of Mahmud Ghazni's death, Ghazi Masud succeeded him as ruler of Ghazni. Masud was a skilled commander who had earned practical experience in warfare through his uncle. He was 11 when he accompanied his uncle to loot the temple of Somnath in Gujarat. In his wake, Masud wanted to follow the same path he had begun with Mahmud Ghazni. Having amassed a force of over 100,000 soldiers, Masud had set out to plunder and capture northern India Masud began his plan by grabbing Delhi under his grasp. That time Delhi was ruled by Raja Mahipal Singh Tomar. Masud attacked Delhi but lost many of his men in the battleground. Luckily he got a backup army from Ghazni which led to his success in Delhi. It followed with a narrow victory in Meerut and a decisive win in Kannauj. His win in Kannauj fueled his army with massive amount of wealth. This allowed him to build a military camp for further expeditions. Later he followed with a successful expedition in Mahilabad. After Mahilabad, Ghazi Masud turned towards the pilgrimage town of Satrikh. Satrikh was an important town for Hindus. It is said that Guru Vashishtha had taught Ram and Laxman in the town of Satrikh. He successfully invaded Satrikh, and shifted his military base here. This helped him to further gain control of Bahraich, Mahina, Varanasi, Karra and Manikpur. MAHARAJA SUHALDEV PASI AND THE BATTLE OF BAHRAICH During this era of Turkic invasion, Shravasti was ruled by a Hindu ruler Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi. A brave yet intelligent ruler, he was aware of the blunder caused by the Muslim invaders in the Indian territory in past. Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi wanted to give an ultimatum to Salar Masud. It is said that once, Maharaja found a small Turkish army camp en route. He gave a surprise attack to the Turks and gained decisive victory. By this incident, he learnt that Turkish army cannot withstand surprise attacks. As Ghazi Masud was advancing further towards Shravasti, Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi was preparing to give him a lasting defeat. Masud then turned towards Shravasti. Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi asked Masud to leave India several times, but he refused. Suhaldev now wanted play his own cards, he created a fresh alliance of armies of local chieftains of Shravasti and even Raja Bhoj of the kingdom of Malwa joined in for the same. Ghazi Masud started to march towards Ayodhya. He got a negative response from his commanders trying to prepare a siege at the Dhundgarh fort. Masud now even had to send his religious teacher to Dhundgarh hoping for a quick success. It was said that no non-Muslim could escape his religious teacher's sword until that person agreed to convert to Islam. But he was slain in Dhundgarh. Masud's army was not able to continue the campaign in Ayodhya and his commander was besieged in Bahraich. Masud turned towards Bahraich. Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi considered this as an opportunity to halt the Ghaznavid invasion in India, for once and for all. Both armies faced off in Bahraich. The strong army of 120,000 men of Shravasti army pounded on the right-wing of the Ghaznavid army and slayed important commanders like Mir Nasirullah. Salar Miya Rajab, a close relative of Salar Masud was slain by Suhaldev's army. Masud nearly escaped the first wave of men, but was caught by the reserved forces. Finally, Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi shot his arrow and beheaded Ghazi Salar Masud. Even after his death the Shravasti forces slayed every last enemy in the battlefield. CONCLUSION This battle led to a major halt for foreign invasion in India for over 150 years. It is said that after the battle the great Maharaja Suhaldev Pasi was killed by Miyan's commander Syed Ibrahim. But victory of Shravasti over the Ghaznavids proved the strength of Indian kingdoms as well. This tale is a forgotten truth, often considered as a myth by many.

The defence system of Lohagadh-Visapur is quite unique and even strong. This is my small research and particularly 'observation' of how this fort system functions and why this defence system was a jewel for the mighty Maratha empire. Let's start with basic history and introduction of all forts in this region: LOHAGADH No one exactly knows when Lohagadh was made, and why it was named as 'Lohagadh', Some people believe that Rishi Loha lived at a cave in the present-day Lohagadh region and thus the fort is named after him but many people even claim that fort translates literally to 'iron fort'. This fort lies near Pawna lake of Lonavala and stands atop in front of a village named after fort 'Lohagadwadi'. The fort has 4 gates which are still in good condition and has a chest-height wall. The fort has an extension like belt called 'Vinchukada' which means scorpion's tail as the wall is shaped in that manner. The fort has a mosque, temple, durbar, 2 lakes, a granary and a cave. Lohagadh fort Lohagadh starts with a normal climb and is horse-friendly like usual forts. But defence based features of this structure starts from here only! It is the positioning of the watchtower which actually gives a perfect degree of vision and aim for archers and cannons. Some of the watchtowers are covered with a dome-like structure that acts as camouflage with mountains and also shields for the protection against the archers. One of the watchtowers gives a full view of the base of the fort and another watchtower gives a 270° view of Pawna lake and the forts of Visapur, Tikona, Tung, Morgiri. The climbing of the fort holds a unique design; at every corner of the fort, a viewer can get a full view of stairs which is strategically important for the defence to attack perpendicularly downwards. After crossing 3 gates, a person reaches the final gate called Maha Darwaza. The climb around this section is steep to make the offensive slow. The walls around Maha Darwaza are also strategic: 1. The steep stairs have a tall wall section on the right side which provides an efficient aim for archers to defend the last gate. 2. The door is well pocketed with a sharp U-TURN. The tall walls on both sides of U-TURN hide the main door well. From far away or from the base of the fort, a person cannot see the main door at all. The door is hidden almost like a cave which is strategically important. 3. As a last line of defence there are small holes in the tall walls. These holes were used to pour boiling hot oil to prevent enemies to climb the wall or get even near the door. 4. Lastly doors of walls have spikes to prevent elephant attacks. This is commonly found in almost every fort in India. 1. The steep stairs have a tall wall section on the right side which provides an efficient aim for archers to defend the last gate. 2. The door is well pocketed with a sharp U-TURN. The tall walls on both sides of U-TURN hide the main door well. From far away or from the base of the fort, a person cannot see the main door at all. The door is hidden almost like a cave which is strategically important. 3. As a last line of defence there are small holes in the tall walls. These holes were used to pour boiling hot oil to prevent enemies to climb the wall or get even near the door. 4. Lastly doors of walls have spikes to prevent elephant attacks. This is commonly found in almost every fort in India. The main section of the fort starts from Hanuman Darwaza. At the entrance, there are holes for cannons and a 90° turn towards office buildings. The topmost section of the fort had houses and most importantly office buildings. It consisted main Killedar's Darbar (fort keepers court), mosque, temple, other minister's buildings. Behind this area lies a cave called 'Lakshmi Koti'. It is said that Rishi Loh lived at Lakshmi Kothi, but one of the important facts of this cave was that the cave had secured 'Surat loot'. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj after looting the prestigious city of Surat had stored his booty in Lakshmi Koti. After Lakshmi Kothi, comes the water tanks. There are 2 main water tanks for Lohagadh which is fed by rainwater harvesting mostly. The first tank is quite old, dating back to the Satavahana era, the second tank was built by Peshwas. After this comes the highlight of the fort, 'Vinchukada' literally translating to a scorpion's tail. This is almost a kilometre of extension of this fort. It overlooks the opposite side of Pavna lake, mainly towards the side of the ancient Bhaja caves. If an attack from the direction of Pune occurs, then the Vinchukada provides a strategic and important location for the long fire of cannons and shot of archers if possible. Vinchukada has walls in all directions, yet it is quite small. The small walls of Vinchukada give cannons a scope to fire at an angle of 360°. This fort stands tall and leads the defence system for Pune from the Konkan frontier. Vinchukada stands atop a cliff, due to which defence-based combat from this region is possible through long-ranging cannons, which cannot actually work in the tall walled boundaries. Hence, walls in Vinchukada are small and this extension is narrow. Below the Vinchukada stands a valley that seeps towards the Pavna lake, hence an attack from the valley is almost impossible. But Lohagadh stands at one edge of the valley, the other edge of the valley stands empty. This was like the greek mythological mountains of Olympus and Othrys! This problem was understood by Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, who initiated the project of the modern fort of Visapur at the other edge of the valley. VISAPUR Balaji Vishwanath had built the modern fort of Visapur. This fort had a modern design, which was pretty updated compared to Lohagadh. One of the most important features upgrades in Visapur was that the inner structure of Visapur was made out of stone and bricks, unlike Lohagadh whose inner structures; mainly houses were made of the old design of mud and straw. The walls of Lohagadh were quite eroded compared to the new, sharp-edged bricks of Visapur. The fort of Visapur is quite large in size and has tall walls surrounding the perimeter. The fort stands over a great height, at a plateau right in front of Lohagadh. This fort was mainly used for artillery purposes, as it was a canons depot. There have been findings of guns from Queen Elizabeth's era. Maximum architectural based shreds of evidence regarding information about the fort were destroyed by the British after they captured Visapur in 1818. Visapur has caves (which some people believe act as bunkers) yet the caves do not highlight much importance in defence of this fortress. Comparison between size of the two forts TIKONA AND TUNG Right in front of Lohagadh and Visapur lies another pair of forts called Tikona and Tung. Both of these structures lie at their respective hills, who stand opposite to each other divided by the Pawna lake. At the foot of Tikona lies the village of Gheravitangad. These forts were not as large as Lohagadh-Visapur and were used as a watchtower and a fort solely made for the defence of the main fortification. It is said that small bands of soldiers were deployed to guard the forts, extract necessary information from the enemy encampment, etc. The climb towards the fort is quite steep which was quite advantageous against enemies. The summit of Tikona gives a panoramic view of Pawna Lake. The uninterrupted view ranges till the village of Chavni, which is referred to as a gateway to Konkan from Pune. Usually, trading from the Konkani coast used to be transported via Pawna lake; hence the security of the goods carried was under the fortification of Lohagdh-Visapur which made the view of Tikona till Chavni quite important. Tung fort is a bit smaller than Tikona. Tung's summit also gives a panoramic view of Pawna lake but one of the most important factors of its summit is its view towards Ghangad, Morgiri, Korigad, Anghai. Further Tung's fortification extended from Morgiri till Taila Baila. The fort of Morgiri lies to the west of Tung fort and has a difficult climb. The fort has a low height wall which creates a favourable condition for the archer. The fort chains up with the Tung fort and the Korigad fort. The fortress overviews towards the Taila Baila fort, which is another entrance towards Konkan. Taila Baila overlooks Karjat. Taila Baila and Morgiri ensured security against an attack from Topikars (British) from the Bombay side. This added a valuable defence for Pune city against any attack by foreign powers. FALL OF THE FORTIFICATION The Lohagadh-Visapur fort had fallen under the British in 1818. The Visapur fort was first attacked by cannons. Seeing this site from Lohagadh, Peshwas stepped down from the fort and the fortification fell subsequently. The design of the forts was not updated enough to match the power of long-ranging British artillery. The standard way of defense with a fort did not really work out against attacks. It is because attacking devices became more stronger than the old defending structures which had subsequently led to the emergence of the bunker system. Maratha forts lacked bunkers, and were more dependent on protection with the fort wall.